Alcohol in Urine, Saliva, Sweat, and Breast Milk and Biomarkers of Alcohol Consumption

• Author: James G. Wigmore
• Pages: 178-206

 

 

Alcohol in Urine, Saliva, Sweat, and

Breast Milk and Biomarkers of Alcohol

Consumption

In addition to the more commonly used alcohol testing of breath and

blood of drinking dr ivers, other substances such as urine and saliva h ave

been employed. Transdermal (sweat) alcohol monitoring of persons on

parole or probation with the condition of no alcohol consumption is be-

coming more frequent. Biomarkers of alcohol consumption found in the

hair or urine are also used for this purpose. Since alcohol distributes

throughout the total body water, it is not surprising that alcohol, if con-

sumed by a lactating woman, appea rs in her breast milk.

. URINE

Urine is the only sample that can be collected from living subjects that

can indicate the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) at a time prior to the

collection of the sample, as it is stored in the bladder (). The phase

of the BAC curve can be determined vi a the urine alcohol concentration

(UAC) by the following:

• UAC < BAC (absorption phase, BAC increasing)

• UAC > BAC (post-absorption phase, BAC plateaued or decreasing )

Alcohol causes an increase in urine f‌low (diuresis) during only the

f‌irst several hours after d rinking (, ). Urine samples collected

from drinking drivers can be used to determine BAC (, ).

Falsely high UACs may occur in the urine sample if collected from a

diabetic person who has a yeast infection (, ). The use of re-

frigeration and NaF prevents this alcohol formation (–). Freezing

Alcohol in Urine, Saliva, Sweat, and Breast Milk and Biomarkers of Alcohol Consumption  

Reference Number: 

and re-thawing urine samples and improperly sealed containers cause

a decrease in UAC (, ). Alcohol intoxication can increase the

risk of bladder rupture after mi nor trauma ().

Reference Number: 

, ..,  .. . “Blood Alcohol Concentration Deter-

mined from Urine Samples as a Practical Equivalent or Alternative

to Blood and Breath Tests.” Journal of Forensic Sciences, : –,

 ( tables,  f‌igure,  references)

Abstract: The average production of urine is .–. mL/min. With

alcohol consu mption, the average product ion is approximately – mL/

min. The impulse to void occurs at  mL of urine in the bladder, and

pronounced discomfort occurs at  mL. Under normal circ umstances

the impulse to void occurs in –. hours. In law enforcement practice,

the average time for the second urine sample in drink ing drivers was 

minutes due to the diuretic ef‌fect. Assuming that urine is % water

and blood is % water, the urine ethanol–blood ethanol ratio should

be .:. In impaired driving cases, the two urine samples showed that

most people had reached the BAC plateau or the elimination phase

(/ or %). In only two cases was the dif‌ference between the f‌irst

and second sample greater than .g/mL. This contradicts the

frequent claims of rapid consumption of alcohol just before driving.

Urine is a reliable and accurate alternative to sampling blood for alcohol

determination when second samples collected within  h from void-

ing are provided by cooperative subjects and converted using a ratio

of .:.

Reference Number: 

, .. “Excretion of Alcohol in Urine and Diuresis in Healthy Men

in Relation to Their Age, the Dose Administered and the Time after

Drinking.” Forensic Science International, : –,  ( tables, 

f‌igure,  references)

Abstract: Eight male subjects consumed ., ., or .g/kg of ethanol

as neat whiskey within  – minutes. Urine was collected immed iately

before drinking and every  minutes for – hours and then analyzed

for ethanol by an alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) method. Only .–.%