Examination of Witnesses

• Author: Matthew Gourlay/Brock Jones/Jill D. Makepeace/Glen Crisp/Renee Pomerance
• Pages: 303-387

CHAPTER 8

EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES

I. Introduction ..................................................... 

II. Credibility and Reliability ........................................... 

III. Competence and Compellability .................................... 

A. Competence ................................................. 

B. Compellability ................................................ 

IV. Examination-in-Chief ............................................. 

A. Witness Preparation ........................................... 

. Protecting and Respecting the Rights of the Witness ............ 

(A) Language/Communication Concerns...................... 

(B) Observing Cultural or Religious Beliefs and Practices......... 

(C) Publication Bans and Testimonial Aids ..................... 

. Reviewing Material Prior to Testimony ......................... 

. Communicating with Witnesses .............................. 

B. Specific Issues in Examination-in-Chief........................... 

. Excluding Witnesses and Prohibiting Communication ........... 

. Order of Witnesses ......................................... 

. Leading Questions.......................................... 

. Addressing Memory Issues ................................... 

(A) Present Memory Refreshed ............................... 

(B) Past Recollection Recorded .............................. 

(C) Police Officers and the Use of Notes to Refresh Memory . . . . . 

. The Adverse, Hostile, and/or Inconsistent Witness .............. 

(A) Distinguishing Between the Adverse, Hostile, and

InconsistentWitness..................................... 

(B) The Section () Protocol ................................ 

(C) The Section () Protocol: A Proposal ...................... 

(D) Relying on a Prior Inconsistent Statement for Its Truth ....... 

. Addressing Other Discreditable Conduct and Prior Inconsistent

Statements in Chief ......................................... 

. Crown Limits Regarding Who Can and Cannot Be Called ........ 

(A) Calling Witnesses for an Improper Purpose ................. 

(B) Prosecutorial Discretion to Call Certain Witnesses ........... 

303

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C. The Use of Exhibits ............................................ 

. Authentication ............................................. 

. Other Issues ............................................... 

(A) Objections to the Admission of Exhibits .................... 

(B) Continuity of Exhibits .................................... 

. Procedure: Entering an Exhibit as Evidence .................... 

D. Key Considerations ............................................ 

V. Cross-Examination................................................ 

A. Overview..................................................... 

. General Principles .......................................... 

. Preparation ................................................ 

. Form of Questions.......................................... 

. Form of Answers ........................................... 

B. Specific Issues in Cross-Examination ............................. 

. Limits on the Cross-Examination of the Accused by the Crown ... 

(A) Cross-Examination on the Failure of an Accused to Call

CertainEvidence ........................................ 

(B) Cross-Examination of the Accused Alleging the Tailoring

ofEvidence ............................................ 

(C) Cross-Examination Seeking Comment or Explanation

Regarding theTestimonyofOtherWitnesses ............... 

. Cross-Examining the Accused During a Voir Dire ............... 

. Cross-Examining the Accused on Communication with

OtherWitnesses............................................ 

. Cross-Examination of the Accused by a Co-Accused

(Joint Trials)................................................ 

. Use of Other Discreditable Conduct in Cross-Examination ....... 

(A) Cross-Examination of the Accused by the Crown on Other

Discreditable Conduct ................................... 

(B) Cross-Examination of the Non-Accused Witness Regarding

OtherDiscreditable Conduct ............................. 

. Incomplete Cross-Examination Due to Witness

Unresponsiveness .......................................... 

. Cross-Examining the Police.................................. 

(A) Use of Police Notes ..................................... 

(B) Cross-Examining Police on the Manner of Investigation ...... 

. Prohibition on the Use of Prior Findings Made Against a Witness... 

. The Use of Prior Statements or Testimony in Cross-Examination .. 

(A) Prior Inconsistent Statements ............................. 

(B) Prior Testimony and the Right Against Self-Incrimination ..... 

(C) Cross-Examining an Accused on the Absence of Information

Contained in a Police Statement .......................... 

. Rv Lyttle and a Good-Faith Basis for Questions................. 

. The Rule in Browne v Dunn .................................. 

304MODERN CRIMINAL EVIDENCE

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I. INTRODUCTION

Criminal law lawyers must be able to elicit, question, and properly scrutinize the evi-

dence of witnesses. These are skills that can be learned and, despite the protestations

of those who may wish otherwise, are not endowed supernaturally upon a select few.

Most counsel already have the patience, discipline, and work ethic needed to succeed

in this arena. They understand the value of preparation and org anization as well as the

importance of appreciating the evidence of a witness in context. However, these traits

mean little if counsel do not also p ossess an in-depth understanding of the law and of

what can and cannot be done to obta in the best evidence from a witness.1

This chapter aims to assist the practitioner with a review of the rules, practices, and

principles to be considered when questioning witnesses. This includes the need to

understand, from the out set, two core concerns that should inform the examination of

every witness and their ev idence: credibility and reliability.

II. CREDIBILITY AND RELIABILITY

Credibility and reliability are distinct concepts.2 Credibility has to do with a witness’s

sincerity, while reliability refers to the accura cy of a witness’s testimony, including their

ability to observe, recall, and recount events in issue.3 A witness may be credible, but

may nevertheless provide unreliable evidence.4 These are findings of fact to be made

by the trier of fact. A credibilit y finding by a trial judge, in particular, is entitled to a high

degree of deference on appeal, un less a palpable or overriding error can be shown.5

1 This perspe ctive is shared by many. See e. g. Earl J Levy, Examination of Witnesses, 2nd ed (Toronto: Thom-

son/Carswell , 1991) at 159. Indeed, as Levy n oted (at least as far back as 1991) in the co ntext of cross-

examination: “It h as been said that geniu s is 90 per cent preparation a nd 10 per cent inspiration .” The first

number is argua bly too low.

2 Rv Perrone, 2014 MBCA 74 at paras 25-26, aff ’d 2015 SCC 8, referencing Rv Morrissey, (1995) 22 OR (3d)

514 at 526 (CA); Rv HC,2009 ONC A 56 at para41.

3 Rv Slatter,2019 ONCA 807 at para 117 (in dis sent) [Slatter 2019], adopted by the Sup reme Court in 2020

SCC 36 [Slatter S CC].

4 HC, supra note 2 at para41, refer encing Morrissey, supra note 2 at 526.

5 Rv Gagnon, 2006 SCC 17 at par a 10; Rv Choli, 2019 SKCA 87 at paras 52-57; Rv J MS,2020 NSCA 71,

referencing Rv Kiss, 2018 ONCA 184 at par a 83. Where a trial judge appl ies different standar ds in assess-

ing competing ev idence on issues relating to cre dibility, the deference norm ally owed to the credibility

assessment of th e trial judge is genera lly displaced (Kiss, para 83; JMS, para 20 ). See also Rv Cooke, 2020

NSCA 66 at para 10.

. Collateral Facts Rule ........................................ 

. Questioning by the Judge ................................... 

C. Key Considerations ............................................ 

VI. Re-Examination .................................................. 

A. Overview..................................................... 

B. General Principles ............................................. 

Chapter 8 Examination of Witnesses 305

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